Introduction

The role of women in Türkiye’s labor force has been a subject of ongoing discussion and analysis. This article delves deep into the experiences of unionized female workers in Türkiye, examining the historical context, current challenges, and potential solutions. By exploring the intricate relationship between gender, labor rights, and union participation, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the situation faced by women in Turkish workplaces and unions.

Labor Unions and Their Roles

Labor unions are constitutional organizations established by workers to protect and enhance their economic and social rights and interests. They negotiate collective agreements with employers to improve working conditions, ensure fair wages, and create a dignified work environment. Labor unions act on behalf of their members to safeguard their interests and ensure they are involved in all matters related to the production process.

Unions can be seen as a “legal solidarity organization” for workers, a “structure formed by workers who cannot individually challenge employers,” a “body created to defend economic and social rights,” a “forceful organization to tackle challenges,” and a “structure that empowers against both employers and cultural prejudices.”

Throughout history, unions have existed in various forms with the emergence of labor relations. Workers organized under different names have pursued collective struggles to secure their rights.

The History of Unions

Looking back at the history of unions, which have been protected by law and considered fundamental worker rights, we see that they emerged with the rise of the working class. Workers formed unions to protect their rights and interests against employers. However, various worker organizations existed even before the formation of unions.

In some countries, workers established mutual aid societies. There were worker education associations in other countries. In some places, as capitalism developed and guild relations loosened, journeymen who wanted to protect their rights and interests against masters organized secret societies. Some of these organizations transformed over time into groups that defended workers’ rights against employers and governments. At a certain stage of this transformation, these organizations came to be known as “unions.” In other words, the main criterion for an organization to be considered a “union” is the function it performs.

In European countries, many unions trace their origins to “brotherhood organizations” formed by journeymen to resist the oppression and exploitation of masters in guilds. These secret organizations facilitated mutual aid among journeymen while protecting their rights and interests against masters, often leading to strikes. However, more inclusive general organizations for workers, transcending specific trades, did not emerge until the late 19th century.

In the Ottoman Empire, the first known type of union-like organization was the Amele-i Osmani (Ottoman Workers) Society, established secretly by workers at the Tophane factory in Istanbul. Founded in 1894-95, this organization was soon discovered and disbanded. Unions in the Ottoman Empire emerged and proliferated after the declaration of the Second Constitutional Era in 1908. During the Republican era, laws that led to the creation of worker and employer associations and unions included the 1938 Law on the Amendment of Certain Articles of the Associations Law and the “Law on Workers’ and Employers’ Unions and Union Confederations” enacted in 1947.

After the prohibition on forming associations was lifted with the passage of a bill amending Article 9 of the Associations Law on June 10, 1946, the Turkish Textile Workers Union was established in Istanbul. On February 20, 1947, the new understanding of the Workers’ and Employers’ Unions and Union Confederations was shaped by Law No. 5018. Worker associations became unions. On March 24, 1948, the Istanbul Workers’ Unions Association was established, aiming to unify the previously fragmented unions.

Türkiye’s First Female Unionist

After the Treaty of Lausanne, Zehra Kosova, who was born in Kavala in 1910 and migrated to Türkiye with her family as part of the Turkish-Greek Population Exchange, played a significant role in Türkiye’s labor movement as the country’s first female unionist. The experiences gained by Roma tobacco workers in the Balkans before the exchange, particularly in tobacco labor and union struggles, were brought to Türkiye, creating a new tradition. Zehra Kosova, who worked as a tobacco worker in many places, led the establishment of the Tobacco Workers Union in 1946, spearheading the union struggle in Türkiye.

Having worked as a laborer during a period when the effects of the 1929 economic depression were still felt and harsh economic conditions prevailed, Zehra Kosova worked in factories under extremely difficult conditions, sometimes receiving bulgur instead of a salary for her labor.

Surviving and trying to sustain life in such economic conditions meant an extra struggle for women. Like elsewhere in the world, female workers were employed at much lower wages than men, faced various forms of harassment, and were doubly exploited in a period already marked by intense worker exploitation.

Even today, women in the workforce still face similar challenges and are employed in lower-paid jobs as a reserve labor force. This situation can be attributed to “gender roles.” The concept of gender assumes that roles for men and women are distributed in society and that each gender has unique tasks and responsibilities. Therefore, most female workers are considered a “reserve army of labor,” as defined by Marx.

Through the reserve army of labor, the system aims to reduce wage costs by instilling a constant fear of losing their jobs among workers. The persistent presence of unemployment serves as a reminder to employed workers that they have no job security and that there are always others ready to take their place. Thus, the reserve army of labor is a tool of exploitation that manipulates the fear of unemployment, particularly among female workers.

Being a Unionized Female Worker

Gender-Based Discrimination Faced by Female Workers Today

The challenges women face in the workplace begin with the hiring process. Employers’ preference for male-dominated employment and discriminatory practices based on gender during recruitment are significant barriers to women’s participation in the labor force.

Women are often seen as having less energy for work due to domestic responsibilities and are perceived as likely to leave work upon marriage or childbirth, leading to a preference for male workers by employers. This constitutes the first challenge women face in their professional lives.

Another obstacle to women’s participation in the labor force is wage discrimination. Women earn lower wages than men in the same professions and often work in sectors with lower wages.

The general employment of women in low-wage or temporary jobs leads to lower female employment rates, decreased quality of the female workforce, a preference for unemployment among low-wage female workers, and the inability to achieve long-term employment for women. The “Measurement of the Gender Wage Gap: Türkiye Application Report,” prepared jointly by the International Labour Organization (ILO) Türkiye Office and the Turkish Statistical Institute (TÜİK), was shared with the public on September 30, 2020, through a webinar. According to the study, the gender wage gap in Türkiye is 15.6%.

Another issue faced by women is work-family conflict. Work-family conflict is defined by Greenhaus and Beutell as “a situation where role demands from work and family domains are incompatible in some respect.”

The patriarchal mindset and gender-based division of labor, which consider housework and childcare solely as women’s duties and assign men the responsibility of providing for the family, and the roles assigned to women by society, along with the resulting family structure, negatively affect women’s participation in the labor force. In the new socio-cultural structure, women’s participation in the workforce has also enabled their participation in public life in ways different from traditional roles. However, despite the changes in the workforce and public spheres, the roles expected of women by society have not changed. Although women have the opportunity to participate in the workforce, they continue to bear traditional responsibilities such as being a spouse, childcare, elderly care, and housework.

Thus, unlike men, women are expected to fulfill both the roles and responsibilities attributed to them within the home and the workload similar to men at work. Consequently, the expectation for women to simultaneously meet their traditional family responsibilities and work obligations results in women expending more effort and energy and experiencing more work-family conflict than men.

Indeed, the 2021 Türkiye Family Structure Survey shows that the rate of women’s involvement in household chores within the family is high.

First introduced by Witz and Schellhardt in a March 24, 1986, Wall Street Journal article titled “Women in the Workplace,” the concept of “glass ceilings” describes another issue women face in their professional lives. The glass ceiling barrier that women encounter leads to a sense of learned helplessness by making them accept that they cannot hold upper management positions and causing a decrease in their work performance.

The concept of “mobbing,” first defined by Professor Heinz Leymann in the 1980s, refers to “hostile and unethical communication aimed at psychologically terrorizing one or more individuals systematically in the workplace.” Many studies examining the connection between mobbing and gender have found that women are more likely than men to experience mobbing. Women who cannot withstand this intimidation may withdraw from the workforce.

Sexual harassment in the workplace is a form of gender discrimination that can affect a person’s decisions, conditions, and continuation in professional life, intimidating and discouraging them, and subjecting them to unwanted behaviors, sexual demands, or coercion, creating a hostile work environment. The obligation to work together makes it difficult for victims to react to the incident. Studies show that most women who experience sexual harassment do not report the incident to anyone or legally file a complaint and try to cover it up. This situation can also push women out of professional life.

Today, the employment of women in flexible and precarious work areas is a common problem. Many women work in informal, unregistered, and informal jobs without social security. A significant portion of the informal labor force consists of women working from home.

Home-based work is the simplest form of paid work done at home. Various goods and services production, such as handicrafts, winter food production, washing, ironing, sewing, wine production, etc., has been ongoing for centuries.

With globalization and the fragmentation of production, as work moved out of factories and into homes, home-based work has diversified, and the number of workers has increased daily. The most fundamental characteristic of home-based work is its invisibility, both in terms of the work itself and the workers. This type of work, which takes place inside the home, both limits women’s participation in employment and leads to the exploitation of their labor. Indeed, home-based work causes women to be deprived of social security, fall outside the protections offered by legal regulations, and work for wages well below the minimum wage.

Women’s Perspective on Unions

Today, due to political and cultural reasons, there can be prejudice against unions, with workers sometimes feeling that union membership will not be viewed favorably by employers. Indeed, one of the most frequently asked questions about unions, which clearly play an important role in workers having a say in production processes and working conditions, is, “Will my boss/employer find out if I am a union member?” or, more accurately, “the fear of being discovered.”

To clarify: union membership is confidential between the member and the union; third parties are not informed of this. Union membership is private information maintained in the system of the Ministry of Labor and Social Security. Disclosing this information violates legal regulations on the confidentiality of personal data and constitutes an offense under Article 135 of the Turkish Penal Code.

So, what is the view of female workers, who still face discrimination in employment and the workplace due to gender roles in the 21st century, towards unions?

Women often work under conditions where unionization opportunities are more limited, and as a result, they may remain distant from union membership. As mentioned above, factors such as the predominance of women in informal jobs, family responsibilities, discrimination, and the male-dominated image of unions mean that women’s unionization rates are observed to be lower.

Despite these factors, some studies have found that women’s desire to become union members is similar to that of men. Thus, the desire of women to join a union may increase due to factors such as low job and wage satisfaction and the discrimination they face, although this potential may not be realized due to unions’ inability to reach informally employed individuals. As noted in the April 2023 e-bulletin publication of the Ministry of Labor and Social Security, the rate of mandatory insured individuals is 66.9% for men and 33.1% for women. The same study shows that 77.3% of unionized workers are male, while 22.5% are female (Table 1).

A study conducted in Türkiye revealed the instrumental view women have towards unions. In their research aimed at identifying the profile of female unionists, Toksoz and Erdogan surveyed 141 women and conducted in-depth interviews with 14 female union leaders.

The study examined women’s views and expectations of unions, with the results indicating an instrumental view of unions. Following education, the most important expectations were identified as increasing social rights and wages. As a result of this assessment, it can be argued that women are inclined towards union membership if certain barriers are removed.

Indeed, Urhan, in a study involving 411 unionized and non-unionized workers, found that female workers are more willing to join a union than men. If the reasons preventing them from joining a union were eliminated, the percentage of men wanting to become union members would be 66.7%, while for women, this rate would be 83.3%.

It is clear that to increase the unionization rate of female workers and prevent gender-based discrimination they face in the workplace, unions must develop realistic and effective policies. Women playing a managerial role in unions, especially their representation in collective bargaining agreements, is crucial at this point.

A survey conducted by Hak-İş in 2017 highlighted the inevitable need for female representation in collective bargaining negotiations. In the survey-based study titled “Problem Solving Methods for Female Employees from a Union Perspective” conducted by Hak-İş (2017), the responses of unionized women are as follows (Table 2):

Views and Questions Directed at Participants	Agree (%)	Disagree (%)	Undecided (%)
I think unions have a male-dominated structure.	36.9	40	23.1
Do you believe you receive the respect you deserve as a woman in your workplace?	53.3	31.4	15.3
I think female representation in collective bargaining negotiations is an inevitable necessity.	82.8	8.7	8.5
I am aware that my union has a women’s committee.	52.3	24.4	23.4
I think unions act in line with their objectives by considering gender equality.	53.3	18.2	28.6
The environment I work in is safe for a woman.	69.2	18.7	12.2
Can you share the issues you face with the upper management in your workplace?	53	27.2	–
Have you been subjected to mobbing (psychological/physical harassment) as a woman in your workplace?	26.2	62.9	10.9
Is there gender discrimination in your workplace?	25.6	60.9	13.6
Do you think you work under equal conditions with men in your workplace?	56.2	29.5	14.3
Are you aware of your legal rights in your workplace?	53.5	24.6	21.8
I am aware of my union’s activities for women.	47.4	27.3	25.3
Do you think your gender is an obstacle to advancing your career in your workplace?	21.6	67.2	11.3

Excluding the undecided, in the survey, 76.7% of participants “Agree” or “Strongly Agree” with the statement “I believe unions should work more for women,” while 78.9% “Agree” or “Strongly Agree” with the statement “I want women to be encouraged to take more roles in workplace representation, delegate, provincial, and central management in unions.“

As can be seen from the survey results, female representation in union management is very important for the unionization of female workers and their ability to demand equal compensation for their labor.

Women in Union Management in Türkiye

In Türkiye, women are almost non-existent in decision-making mechanisms in unions. Moreover, since many unions do not keep data on a gender basis, there is no clear information on the number of women represented at the managerial level in unions.

Examining the boards of the major confederations, DİSK, Türk-İş, and Hak-İş, it is seen that female representation is almost nonexistent. Only one female board member exists in all three major confederations: the President of DİSK. Apart from the President of DİSK, there are no female board members in DİSK, Türk-İş, or Hak-İş. Looking at the provincial presidencies, audit boards, and disciplinary boards of these major confederations, it is also seen that the number of female managers/members is extremely low or non-existent.

Looking at the Management, Audit, and Disciplinary Boards of the unions with the most members from each sector, determined in accordance with the “Communique on Statistics Regarding the Number of Workers by Sector and the Number of Union Members for January 2024″ published in the Official Gazette on January 31, 2024, by the Ministry of Labor and Social Security, the lack of female members in representation is noteworthy. Of the 20 unions with the most members in the 20 sectors determined, 12 have no female members. Only three unions have more than one female member on their boards.

The sectors where female workers are most employed in Türkiye are the service and agricultural sectors. However, examining the management boards of the unions affiliated with the agricultural and service sectors, it is again seen that female representation is almost nonexistent.

The importance of female representation in unions to prevent the discrimination that women face in the workplace and to include provisions in collective bargaining agreements in favor of female workers is evident from the survey conducted by Hak-Is in 2017. Increasing female representation in unions will also increase the number of unionized female workers. It is crucial for female workers to trust unions and become unionized, as policies to prevent gender-based discrimination can only be made with female workers.

Indeed, the expectations of unionized female workers from unions are in this direction. Therefore, to prevent women from being exploited twice in their workplaces due to informal, low-wage jobs and because of gender-based reasons, female workers must be involved in union activities and included in collective bargaining processes. However, the participation of unionized female workers in union activities is more difficult than that of men due to sociocultural factors.

In a survey conducted in Gölcük district of Kocaeli province regarding the problem areas faced by female members of public employee unions in participating in union activities, all 15 female workers reported:

• “Due to their roles within the family,”
• 67% said “Due to the obstacles created by the institutions they work for,“
• 60% said “Due to the existence of gender discrimination in terms of participation in management,“
• Again, 60% said “Due to the unions not sufficiently addressing the problems caused by the gender of female members,“

They stated that they could not participate in union activities.

The responsibility for women’s participation in union activities lies with the union’s management bodies. At this point, unions should develop policies to alleviate the burden of women caused by socio-cultural reasons and work to prevent gender-based discrimination. These policies should be secured through collective bargaining agreements.

Regulations That Can Be Introduced with Collective Bargaining Agreements

Although gender-based discrimination in the workplace is prohibited by the constitution and laws, the “maternity, birth, and breastfeeding leave” rights based on biological gender are often viewed unfavorably by employers due to the associated costs. Additionally, gender roles contribute to the discrimination women face in recruitment and professional life. The labor of women, no different from that of men, should be secured through collective bargaining agreements that include provisions for positive discrimination. Here are some examples of such provisions:

1. Inclusion of Women in Collective Bargaining Negotiations: Women’s demands should be addressed under a separate agenda item in collective bargaining processes.
2. Protection of Social and Employment Rights: Women who take paid or unpaid leave for childbirth and breastfeeding should not suffer a loss of social and employment rights, which should be secured through collective bargaining agreements.
3. Addressing Workplace Violence and Harassment: Violence and harassment in the workplace should be seen as a health issue affecting all employees and should be integrated into the work of Occupational Health and Safety Boards. Training and awareness-raising activities should be conducted on gender equality and the prevention of violence and harassment.
4. Early Retirement and Extra Pension Credits: Considering women’s double workload, early retirement and additional pension credits should be included in the social security system.
5. Establishing Daycare Centers: In accordance with Article 13 of the Regulation on the Working Conditions of Pregnant or Nursing Women and Nurseries and Daycare Centers, “Regardless of age and marital status, in workplaces with more than 150 female employees, the employer is obliged to establish a nursery separate from the workplace, meeting the conditions specified in Annex-IV for children aged 0-6, where employees can breastfeed their children. If the nursery is more than 250 meters from the workplace, the employer is required to provide transportation.” This responsibility should be enforced through collective bargaining agreements to establish daycare centers in workplaces where women are employed.

Through collective bargaining agreements, it is possible to prevent the exploitation of female labor, ensure job security, and ultimately prevent women from being pushed out of the workforce due to gender-based reasons. The unionization of female workers, their representation in collective bargaining negotiations, and the safeguarding of their legally protected rights are essential. Furthermore, unions should follow up on the judicial processes related to these rights.

The Judiciary’s Perspective on Female Workers

Women who have their rights violated in the workplace often have to take their cases to court to reclaim their rights. Numerous lawsuits have been filed against employers who fail to comply with regulations, especially those who victimize female workers. One such case is the lawsuit filed by Derya Bal, a quality technician working at an integrated poultry meat plant in the Söğütlü district of Sakarya.

In Söğütlü, after taking her legal leave following the birth of her child in 2015, Derya Bal returned to her job as a quality technician at an integrated poultry meat plant. However, after her request for a nursery, citing the necessity for companies with more than 150 female employees, was denied, she left her job, where she had worked for six years, and filed a lawsuit. The Sakarya 1st Labor Court ruled that Bal was entitled to severance pay due to the justified termination of her employment contract, and she received 29,000 TL in severance pay as per the court’s decision.

Derya Bal stated, “I was working as a quality technician in a company employing more than 150 female staff. I gave birth in 2015 while working there. My verbal request for a nursery during my pregnancy and after my birth was rejected and not accepted. Every workplace employing more than 150 women is required to provide a nursery for the care of children aged 0-6. If this request is not met, it constitutes a justified reason for termination. I reminded my workplace of this requirement and did not receive a response, leading to a legal process.“

Although workers may find themselves in a disadvantaged position in the workplace, preventing female workers from facing double exploitation due to biological and gender roles can be achieved by increasing the unionization of female workers and their representation in unions and involvement in collective bargaining processes. Women who experience these problems together will also bring solutions together.

Here’s to a world where we can all receive fair compensation for our labor!

 

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Cover;March of the Weavers, sheet 4 of the cycle »A Weavers’ Revolt«, 1893-1897 (https://www.kollwitz.de/en/sheet-4-march-of-the-weavers)